Introduction

Welcome to "Special Education - Research tool." My name is Cam Cobb and I have recently completed my Ph.D. at OISE/UT. My thesis, a qualitative study, is entitled "Minoritized Parents, Special Education, and Inclusion."

Over the years I have read a variety of articles and books about special education. There are over 50 different articles referenced in this database. This number will grow over time. The articles referenced on this website have been grouped thematically.

(In case you were wondering, this blog does indeeed have a twin, entitled "Diversity in Canada-Research tool." You may find this twin blog at the following URL: http://diversityincanada-researchtool.blogspot.com/).

Definitions

Kozey, M. & Siegel, L.S. (2008). Definitions of Learning Disabilities in Canadian Provinces and Territories. Canadian Psychology, 49, 2, 162-171.

• Kozey and Siegel compile LD policies across Canada's provinces and territories. In their discussion, the authors note: "The Canadian experience with policy definitions of LD is distinct from that of our U.S. neighbours. Previous trends of low levels of operationalization of LD within legal statutes or terms (Klassen, 2002; Weiner & Siegel, 1992) have persisted" (p. 168). Later, they elaborate, "Despite the numerous, recent policy revision, the concepts of intelligence and a discrepancy between intelligence and academic achievement have been retained in most provinces, which contrasts with current research and applied perspectives on LD. The discrepancy definition has been overwhelmingly discredited in numerous studies (Lyon et al., 2001; National Centre for Learning Disabilities, 2002; Siegel, 1988; Stanovich, 1991; Stuebing et al., 2002; Vellutino, Scanlon, & Lyon, 2000). The wording of one province (Ontario) implies a required discrepancy" (p. 169).

History

Parent Involvement

Hoff, M.K., Fenton, K.S., Yoshida, R.K., & Kaufman, M.J. (1978). Notice and consent: The school’s responsibility to inform parents. Journal of School Psychology, 16(3), 265-273.

• Identifies low parent involvement as an issue.

Goldberg, S.S., & Kuriloff, P.J. (1991, May). Evaluating the fairness of special education hearings. Exceptional Children, 57(6), 546-564.

• Identifies low parent involvement as a key issue in Special Education.

Bailey, D.B., Buysse, V., Edmondson, R., & Smith, T.M. (1992). Creating family-centered services in early intervention: Perceptions in four states. Exceptional Children, 58, 298-309.

• Identifies four general layers of parental involvement in special education (see below).

Bjorck-Akesson, E., & Granlund, M. (1995, May). Family involvement in assessment and intervention: Perceptions of professionals and parents in Sweden. Exceptional Children, 61(6), 520-535.

• Drawing from the research of Bailey, Buysse, Edmondson and Smith (1992), Bjorck-Akesson and Gronlund (1995) investigate four layers of parental involvement in their survey-based quantitative study, including. The four layers are as follows: "parent participation in decisions about the child assessment process, parent participation in the assessment of children prior to the individualized education plan (IEP) … parent participation in the team meeting and decisions about child goals and services, and provision of family goals and services" (p. 523).

Harry, B., Allen, N., & McLaughlin, M. (1995, February). Communication versus compliance: African-American parents' involvement in special education. Exceptional Children, 61(4), 364-377.

• In conducting interviews and observations with parents of 42 African-American parents, Harry, Allen and McLaughlin (1995) consider wider dimensions, such as parental advocacy and contributions to the decision-making process, and also reflect on the more day-to-day aspects of involvement, such as the “monitoring of notebooks and homework, regular “dropping in” to the classroom, informal chats with the teacher, observation of classes and attendance at IEP conferences” (p. 370).

Torres-Burgo, N., Reyes-Wasson, P., & Brusca-Vega, R. (1999, Fall). Perceptions and needs of Hispanic and non-Hispanic parents of children receiving learning disabilities services. Bilingual Research Journal, 23(4), 373-387.

• Explores the matter of limited parental inclusion as it relates to Hispanic-Americans.

de Carvalho, M.E. (2000). Rethinking family-school relations: A critique of parental involvement in schooling. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers.

• Inclusion is not purely a matter of policy if social conditions foster situations of exclusion. Inclusion-oriented policy and practice thus must address wider social issues.

Tellier-Robinson, D. (2000, Summer). Involvement of Portuguese-speaking parents in the education of their special-needs children. Bilingual Research Journal, 24(3), 309-323.

• Interviewing 9 Portuguese-speaking parents prompted Tellier-Robinson (2000) to observe that a significant component of parental involvement included the act of fighting for things they believed were due their children (p. 316).

Todd, L. (2003). Disability and the restructuring of welfare: The problem of partnership with parents. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 7(3), 281-296.

• In interviewing 24 parents, Todd (2003) highlights a reciprocal aspect of parent involvement in viewing “partnership as exchange of knowledge, common purpose and joint decision-making” (p. 281).

Rogers, R. (2003). A critical discourse analysis of the special education referral process: A case study. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 24(2), 139-158.

• Delving into one African-American mother’s personal experiences as her daughter moved through the referral process, Rogers (2003) notes, “June’s decision to begin the process … was shaped by the available options within this particular institutional context and the linguistic ambiguity surrounding the process” (p. 148). She goes on to note, “The ambiguity of the beginning of the referral process was further complicated through the difference in assumptions about the link between the referral of a student and their placement in special education” (Rogers, 2003, p. 148)

Roll-Pattersson, L. (2003, October). Perceptions of parents with children receiving special education support in the Stockholm and adjacent areas. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 18(3), 293-310.

• In her quantitative follow-up to a 1996 study conducted by the Department of Special Education at the Stockholm Institute of Education, Roll-Pettersson (2003) perceives parent involvement as circumstances where parents are “actively engaged in their child’s education” (p. 334).

Lai, Y., & Ishiyama, F.I. (2004, Fall). Involvement of immigrant Chinese Canadian mothers of children with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 71(1), 97-108.

• In another qualitative study, one that draws lengthy interview data from a purposeful sample of 10 Chinese-Canadian mothers who had all lived in Canada for less than 5 years, Lai and Ishiyama (2004) note that parental involvement includes “input to the development of appropriate programs as well as the placement decision process” (p. 98). In investigating the dynamics of parental involvement in the Chinese-Canadian community, Lai and Ishiyama (2004) conclude that “language and cultural beliefs/practices affected parental involvement” (p. 103).

Tam, K.Y., & Heng, M.A. (2005, March). A case involving culturally and linguistically diverse parents in prereferral intervention. Intervention in School and Clinic, 40(4), 222-230.

• Documents challenges faced by linguistically diverse families as they interact with special education program delivery.

Rueda, R., Windmueller, M.P. (2006, March/April). English language learners, LD, and overrepresentation: A multiple-level analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39(2), 99-107.

• Documents challenges faced by linguistically diverse families as they interact with special education program delivery.

Over/Underrepresentation

Overrepresentation in the United States:

Chinn, P.C., & Hughes, S. (1987). Representation of minority students in special education classes. Remedial and Special Education, 8, 41-46.

Artiles, A.J., & Trent, S.C. (1994). Overrepresentation of minority students in special education: A continuing debate. The Journal of Special Education, 27, 410-437.

U.S. Department of Education. (1994). Fall 1992 elementary and secondary school civil rights compliance report: Projections. Washington, D.C.: Office of Civil Rights.

Harry, B., & Andersen, M.G. (1994). The disproportionate placement of African American males in special education programs: A critique of the process. The Journal of Negro Education, 63, 602-620.

Hilliard, A.G. (1997). SBA: The reawakening of the African mind. Gainesville, FL: Makare.

Morrison, P., White, S.H., & Feuer, M.J. (1996). The use of IQ tests in special education decision making and planning. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Burnette, J. (1998). Reducing the disproportionate representation of minority students in special education. (Report No. E566). Reston, VA: ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED417501)

Patton, J. (1998). The disproportionate representation of African Americans in special education: Looking behind the curtain for understanding and solution. The Journal of Special Education, 32(1), 25-31.

Agbenyega, S., & Jiggetts, J. (1999). Minority children and their over-representation in special education. Education, 119, 619-633.

Oswald, D.P., Coutinho, M.J., Best, A.M., & Singh, N.N. (1999). Ethnic representation in special education: The influence of school-related economic and demographic variables. The Journal of Special Education, 32, 194-195.

U.S. Department of Education. (2000). Fall 1998 elementary and secondary school civil rights compliance report: Projections. Washington, D.C.: Office of Civil Rights.

Artiles, A.J., Harry, B., Reschly, D., & Chinn, P. (2002). Placement of students of color in special education: A critical overview. Multicultural Perspectives, 4, 3-10.

Rogers, R. (2003). A critical discourse analysis of the special education referral process: A case study. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 24(2), 139-158.

Kearns, T., Ford, L., & Linney, J.A. (2005, Fall). African American student representation in special education programs. The Journal of Negro Education, 74(4), 297-310.

• The disproportional presence of African-Americans on referral lists and in special education programs has been documented by an assortment of studies over the past 25 years (see the 14 above-listed studies).

Rueda, R., Windmueller, M.P. (2006, March/April). English language learners, LD, and overrepresentation: A multiple-level analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39(2), 99-107.

• Drawing from the work of Artiles and Trent (2000) and Artiles, Harry, Reschly, and Chinn (2002), Rueda and Windmuller (2006) observe that African-American, Chicano/Latino, Native-American, and various subgroups of Asian-American students are “The most common groups involved in overrepresentation” (p. 99).

Overrepresentation in Canada:

Wright, E.N. (1971). Programme placement related to selected countries of birth and selected languages (Report No. 99). Toronto, ON: Toronto Board of Education, Research Services.

Deosaran, R.A. (1976). The 1975 every student survey: Program placement related to selected countries of birth and selected languages (Report No. 140). Toronto, ON: Toronto Board of Education, Research Services.

Wright, E.N., & Tsuji, G.K. (1984). The grade nine student survey: Fall 1983 (Report #174). Toronto, ON: Toronto Board of Education, Research Services.

Cheng, M., Tsuji, G., Yau, M., & Ziegler, S. (1987). The every secondary student survey: Fall 1987 (Report No. 191). Toronto, ON: Toronto Board of Education, Research Services.

Cheng, M., Yau, M., & Ziegler, S. (1993). The 1991 every secondary student survey. Part 3: Program level and student achievement (Report No. 205). Toronto, ON: Toronto Board of Education, Research Services.

Dei, G. (1996). Anti-racism education: Theory and practice. Halifax, NS: Fernwood Publishing.

Brathwaite, K.S., & James, C.E. (1996). Assessing the educational experiences of African Canadians. In K.S. Brathwaite & C.E. James (Eds.), Educating African Canadians (pp. 13-31). Toronto, ON: James Lorimer & Company Ltd., Publishers.

African Canadian Legal Council. (2007). Condition critical: Anti-Black racism and the imperative for action: Report to the committee on elimination of racial discrimination, 70th session, Geneva (Review of Canada’s Seventeenth and Eighteenth Periodic Reports under the International Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination, February 20th and 21st, 2007). Retrieved November 1 2009 from http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cerd/docs/ngos/aclc.pdf

• While the issue of overrepresentation in special education programs has been voiced by some Canadian writers/studies (see the 8 above-listed sources), it is an under-researched area.

Underrepresentation in the United States:

Maker, C.J. (1996). Identification of gifted minority students: A national problem needs changes and a promising solution. Gifted Child Quarterly, 40(1), 41-50.

Ford, D.Y. (1998). The underrepresentation of minority students in gifted education: Problems and promises in recruitment and retention. The Journal of Special Education, 32(1), 4-14.

Daniels, V.I. (1998). Minority students in gifted and special education programs. The Journal of Special Education, 32(1), 1-43.

Huff, R.E., Houskamp, B.M., Watkins, A.V., Stanton, M., & Tavegia, G. (2005). The experiences of parents of gifted African American children: A phenomenological study. Roeper Review, 27(4), 215-221.

• Numerous researchers have raised questions about the underrepresentation of minoritized students in gifted programs (see the 4 above-listed sources). In 1996, Maker observed, “certain cultural, ethnic, and linguistic minority students continue to be underrepresented in special [gifted] programs” (p. 1). According to Daniels (1998), “Inequities in education perpetuate disproportionality” and “disproportionate minority representation in gifted and special education programs” stem from such social processes as special education knowledge production (p. 1). A more recent phenomenological study of parents of gifted African-American students relayed a sense of frustration expressed by parents who felt that school programs lacked cultural sensitivity and observed a degree of elusiveness in the gifted identification procedure (Huff, Houskamp, Watkins, Stanton, & Tavegia, 2005).

Pre-School-Age

Because special education at times also involves parents of preschool-aged children it is necessary to consider this more specific body of literature. While a number of studies have addressed questions relating to educational resources, and the inclusion of preschool-aged in different programs (see Barnett, 1992; Pretti-Frontczak, Kowalski, and Brown, 2002), I was unable to find any studies that focus on the experiences of the parents of preschool-aged children in special education.

Barnett, W.S. (1992). Benefits of compensatory preschool education. The Journal of Human Resources, 27(2), 279-312.

• According to Barnett (1992); “More than 100 studies provide some information about the effects of compensatory preschool education on disadvantaged children” (p. 281). While this number might seem immense, these studies tend to focus on assessment and academic effectiveness (Barnett, 1992).

Peck, C.A., & Cooke, T.P. (1983). Benefits of mainstreaming at the early childhood level: How much can we expect? Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 3, 1-22.

Odom, S.L., & McEvoy, M.A. (1988). Integration of young children with handicaps and normally developing children. In S. Odom & M. Kames (Eds.), Early intervention for infants and children with handicaps: An empirical base (pp. 241-268). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Lamorey, S., & Bricker, D.D. (1993). Integrated programs: Effects on young children and their parents. In C. Peck, S. Odom, & D. Bricker (Eds.), Integrating young children with disabilities into community-based programs: From research to implementation (pp. 249-269). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Buysse, V., & Bailey, D.B. (1993). Behavioral and developmental outcomes in young children with disabilities in integrated and segregated settings: A review of comparative studies. The Journal of Special Education, 26, 434-461.

Odom, S.L. et al. (1996). Inclusion at the preschool level: An ecological systems analysis (SRCD Social Policy Report, 10, 18-30). Retrieved October 30 from http://www.newhorizons.org/spneeds/inclusion/information/schwartz1.htm

• Citing Peck and Cooke (1983), Odom and McEvoy (1988), Lamorey and Bricker (1993), and Buysse and Bailey (1993), Odom et al. (1996) note: "Since 1980, at least four comprehensive reviews of the literature on preschool inclusion have concluded that children with disabilities enrolled in inclusive settings make at least as much progress on standardized measures of cognitive, language, motor, and social development as children in noninclusive special education classrooms.

Pretti-Frontczak, K.; Kowalski, K.; & Brown, R.D. (2002). Preschool teachers’ use of assessments and curricula: A statewide examination. Exceptional Children, 69, 109-123.

• A more recent United States-oriented review of literature written about developments in assessment and curricular materials for preschool-aged special education children can be found in the work of Pretti-Frontczak, Kowalski, and Brown (2002).

Difference

Minow, M. (1990). Making all the difference: Inclusion, exclusion, and American law. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Assessment

Bradley-Johnson, S., Johnson, C.M., & Jacob-Timm, S. (1995). Where will – and where should – changes in education leave school psychology? Journal of School Psychology, 33(3), 187-200.

Davis, L.J. (1995). Enforcing normalcy: Disability, deafness, and the body. London, UK: Verso.

Bonnell, J. (n.d.). Understanding the WISC Test. Retrieved June 15 2005 from http://www.specialneedsadvocate.com/wisc-iii.htm

Hernstein, R.J., & Murray, C. (1996). The bell curve. New York, NY: Free Press.

Morrison, P., White, S.H., & Feuer, M.J. (1996). The use of IQ tests in special education decision making and planning. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Ontario Ministry of Education. (2001). Special education: A guide for educators. Retrieved September 25 2006 from http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/general/elemsec/speced/guide.html

Pretti-Frontczak, K.; Kowalski, K.; & Brown, R.D. (2002). Preschool teachers’ use of assessments and curricula: A statewide examination. Exceptional Children, 69, 109-123.

International (New Section / Incomplete)

Sweden

Bjorck-Akesson, E., & Granlund, M. (1995, May). Family involvement in assessment and intervention: Perceptions of professionals and parents in Sweden. Exceptional Children, 61(6), 520-535.

Roll-Pattersson, L. (2003, October). Perceptions of parents with children receiving special education support in the Stockholm and adjacent areas. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 18(3), 293-310.

UK

Centre for Studies in Inclusive Education (CSIE). (2006). About CSIE. Retrieved April 5 2007 from http://inclusion.uwe.ac.uk/csie/about.htm

Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education (CSIE). (1996). UNESCO survey on special needs education law 1996: CSIE summary. Retrieved March 30 2007 at http://inclusion.uwe.ac.uk/csie/unscolaw.htm


New Zealand

May, S. (1994). Making multicultural education work. Clevedon: Multicultural Matters Ltd.